Conflict Management

About Lesson

The main sources of conflict

Conflict exists whenever incompatible activities occur (Deutsch, 1973). An activity that is incompatible with another is one that prevents, blocks, or interferes with the occurrence or effectiveness of the second activity. A conflict can be as small as a disagreement or as large as a war. It can originate in one person, between two or more people, or between two or more groups. When wanting to manage conflict, you need to remember that:

Conflict is inevitable
Conflict develops because we are dealing with people’s lives, jobs, children, pride, self-concept, ego and sense of mission or purpose
Early indicators of conflict can be recognised
There are strategies for resolution that are available and DO work
Although inevitable, conflict can be minimised, diverted and/or resolved

Interpersonal workplace relationships

One of the most distinctive aspects of human beings is that we are social. We are each affected by the presence of other people, we form relationships with other people, we join groups with other people, and we behave in certain ways towards members of our own and other groups. An interpersonal relationship is a connection between two people. We define types of interpersonal relationships in terms of relational contexts of interaction and the types of expectations that communicators have of one another[1], e.g. A major characteristic of happy, close relationships is a high degree of intimacy[2]. We view our closest relationships as close / intimate if we see them as:

Caring (we feel that the other person loves and cares about us)
Understanding (we feel that the other person has an accurate understanding of us)
Validating (our partner communicates his or her acceptance, acknowledgement and support for our point of view)

Unhappy or ‘distressed’ relationships, on the other hand, are characterised by higher rates of negative behaviour, reciprocating with such negative behaviour when the partner behaves negatively towards us. Interpersonal conflict in the workplace can also lead to counterproductive work behaviours. Interpersonal conflict with the supervisor can lead to counterproductive work behaviours such as defiance, undermining, and colluding with co-workers to engage in deviant behaviour. Interpersonal conflict with peers can lead to counterproductive work behaviours such as harassment, bullying, and physical altercations.

Types of conflict

Different types of conflict are found, for example;

Within an individual
Between two individuals – People have differing styles of communication, ambitions, political or religious views and different cultural backgrounds. In our diverse society, the possibility of these differences leading to conflict between individuals is always there, and we must be alert to preventing and resolving situations where conflict arises.
Within a team of individuals – Even within one organisation or team, conflict can arise from the individual differences or ambitions mentioned earlier; or from rivalry between sub-groups or factions. All leaders and members of the organisation must be alert to group dynamics that can spill over into conflict.
Between two or more teams within an organisation – Whenever people form groups, they tend to emphasise the things that make their group “better than” or “different from” other groups. This happens in the fields of sport, culture, religion and the workplace and can sometimes change from healthy competition to destructive conflict.

Sources of conflict

There are many sources of conflict, such as:

Conflict of aims- different goals
Conflict of ideas- different interpretations (perceptions)
Conflict of attitudes – different opinions (assumptions)
Conflict of behaviour- different behaviours are unacceptable

Conflict sources in the workplace are often between:

Corporate and individual goals
Departments and groups
Formal and informal organisation
Manager and managed
Individual and job
Individuals

The role of personality types in creating conflict

“Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character” [Source: Test Your Own Aptitude by Barrett & Williams]. We all have a unique personal ‘Map of the World’ which drives our behaviour, thoughts, and feelings, it is clearly impossible to ‘label’ people into this category or that. It is, however, a feature of the human race that although we are each unique we also share common traits with other groups. Personality theory identifies and labels groups of personality traits to make up personality types. By doing this we can simplify our understanding of how some groups of people ‘ tick’ and relate to them more appropriately. Conflict often arises when different personality types need to work together.

A- and B-Type Personalities

The following table explains the A- and B-type personalities:

Aggressive, submissive and assertive personalities

We would often classify a person’s personality, based on their behaviour as indicated in the table below: We will look at these classifications a bit later when we consider using “transactional analysis” to describe conflicts caused by personality type. Transactional Analysis is a theory developed by Dr. Eric Berne in the 1950s. Originally trained in psychoanalysis, Berne wanted a theory which could be understood and available to everyone and began to develop what came to be called Transactional Analysis (TA). Transactional Analysis is a social psychology and a method to improve communication. The theories outlines how we have developed and treat ourselves, how we relate and communicate with others, and offers suggestions and interventions which will enable us to change and grow.

Interpersonal conflict

Conflict, in fact very real and heart-wrenching conflict, can occur when one party perceives the goal of the other party as incompatible with his/her own. Often the causes of this type of conflict can be attributed to the following causes:

Putting self-first
Unfulfilled needs/wants
Ignorance
Wrong perceptions
Race, gender and cultural differences
Prior hostility: getting mad in one situation and expressing it in another
Assumptions or expectations: getting frustrated when situations or people are not what we expect; this can cause anger and conflict
Violating another person’s needs: Each of us has a variety of needs, to feel competent, in control, accepted, independent
When these needs are violated, you may see aggressiveness, defensiveness, rejection, withdrawal, and lack of communication
Value differences: Ultimately, we may come to real value differences
There is a difference in how you want to live and how I want to live

“A conflict is a situation in which two or more human beings desire goals which they perceive as being attainable by one or the other but not by both” – Ross Stagner We normally have three choices then:

One or both of us could change
We could stop having a relationship and/or stop communicating
We could tolerate each other and learn to appreciate what we do have in common; we could co-exist the way we are, knowing that we will always have that basic difference

Of course, when we are in the workplace, we really only have one choice, and that is to learn to tolerate and appreciate differences and learn from them.

Conflict in the workplace

Conflict happens between individuals, groups, or in teams. It occurs at all levels of the organisation. We cannot avoid, wish away, or ignore conflict. Wherever people work together and interact, there is the potential for conflict. As we said before, conflict happens when two or more people have opposing views. Conflict is a natural dynamic when interacting with others. One of the positive results of conflict is that you are able to be more insightful and open to change. We have to learn how to deal with conflict so that there is minimum disruption of work and harmony between people. Let’s face it, there are lots of good reasons to blow your top in the workplace: silly errors, misunderstandings, crossed signals, plain stupidity (on the part of others, of course), but there are even better reasons to keep your anger under control. For one thing, when you are angry, you are apt to say or do things you later regret. You are more likely to have an accident…you may even come down with a raging headache. Continued anger can take a heavy toll on mind and body.

Why, then, do we keep on losing our cool?

Probably because it’s natural, instinctive, and briefly satisfying. And because we haven’t stopped to consider how harmful it can be. Yet, that’s exactly what successful managers must do. They can’t afford the luxury of a temper that makes them say and do foolish things and sour their relationships with their people. The most important time to hold your temper is when the other person has lost his. When someone else starts to grow angry, never respond in kind, no matter what the temptation. To be sure, this will sometimes require a huge effort on your part, but the payoff is worth the effort; nothing to regret, nothing to apologise for, no strained relations to mend, and the respect of your people.

Managers vs. employees

People change their jobs for any number of reasons—more opportunity for advancement, a fatter pay cheque, and an easier commute. But people who are reasonably content with their work and their managers seldom go out looking for other jobs. Some managers have a higher turnover among their people than others, sometimes embarrassingly so, and often it’s the better people who leave. This can be a costly and frustrating problem. Sometimes, people are offered opportunities or salaries that are so extraordinary that you cannot possibly match them. All you can do in such cases is let them go and wish them good luck. But don’t be too sure. Before you let yourself off the hook, ask yourself a few questions:

Did I let these people know how important they were to me and to the company? Or did I more or less take them for granted?
Did I give them a chance to be proud of themselves?
Did I give them the credit and recognition they deserved from me and others in the company? Or did I tend to leave them in the shadows?
Was the job a real challenge? Did I do my best to make it so?
Did I make their work as varied and interesting as possible?
Did I show them the possibilities of a promising future? Or did I simply leave them in a rut and exploit their abilities to my own advantage?
Did I pass along all the authority I possibly could— or keep them tied to my apron strings?

Don’t be too quick to absolve yourself of all blame. If you were responsible, to any degree, it’s smarter to realise it than to hide your head in the sand. Unless you change your attitude or actions, you may lose more than just good people. You may be on the verge of damaging your own company or career as well. Obviously, the best time to think of these things is before you lose good people rather than after. When conflict is left unresolved, people become enemies, communication breaks down, trust is destroyed, and hostility and bad feelings are created and continue to grow.

Discuss the positive and negative characteristics of conflict

Conflict can have either positive or negative characteristics in the workplace. Conflict is often divided into:

Healthy vs. unhealthy conflict

Functional vs. dysfunctional conflict

Conflict in the workplace would often influence the performance of individuals. The following diagram shows the influence of conflict on the performance of individuals:

Organisational conflict modes

For any organisation to be effective and efficient in achieving its goals, the people in the organisation need to have a shared vision of what they are striving to achieve, as well as clear objectives for each team / department and individual. You also need ways of recognising and resolving conflict amongst people, so that conflict does not become so serious that co-operation is impossible. All members of any organisation need to have ways of keeping conflict to a minimum – and of solving problems caused by conflict, before conflict becomes a major obstacle to your work. This could happen to any organisation, whether it is an NGO, a CBO, a political party, a business or a government. The differences that could cause conflict between people in the workplace could arise from the following modes:

Organisational politics (the games)
Perceived adverse changes
Personality – personal attributes, interests, preferences, values perception and style
Competing work and family demands
Limited resources
Departmentalisation and specialisation
The nature of work activities
Inequitable treatment
Violation of territory
Role conflict

“Organisational conflict arises because of rapid and unpredictable change, new technological advances, competition for scarce resources, differences in cultures and belief systems, and the variety of human personalities.” – M. Barker

Signs of conflict in the workplace

Some signs of conflict will be very visible. For example, you might:

Witness a heated exchange between colleagues
Attend a meeting between management and employee representatives that turns into a stand-off

However, not all forms of conflict are so obvious. Some individuals might hide their feelings as a way of coping with a problem; while a team might react to pressure by cutting itself off from the rest of the organisation. The quicker that you recognise there is a problem the better. Conflict that is ignored can often escalate. Spotting conflict at an early stage gives you a better chance of:

Identifying the underlying causes
Reaching a sustainable agreement
Resolving the conflict

Before conflict develops people may simply feel unhappy about colleagues or issues that are troubling them. You might notice the following symptoms that could suggest that conflict modes are in existence: Some of the symptoms – such as absence levels – can be measured and monitored. Recognising other symptoms often relies on how sensitive you are to the atmosphere within an office or workstation. For example, instead of talking through differences of opinion are employees sending angry emails to eachother? Some managers will find it easier than others to pick up signs of conflict. There is often an element of doubt. For example, is a row between a manager and an employee a symptom of some deeper problem or are they just having an off day with each other? As a manager you are more likely to be able to interpret the behaviour of your employees if you have regular channels for open communication and consultation. By listening to the views of your employees at an early stage – before issues become potential problems – you can gauge future reaction to proposed changes. Employee feedback forms or questionnaires may also help you to put in place preventative measures to stop future conflict arising.

Use Transactional Analysis to describe interpersonal conflict

Conflict can be described and identified using transactional analysis. Transactional Analysis was developed by Eric Berne, MD (d.1970). Berne devised the concept of ego states to help explain how we are made up, and how we relate to others. These are drawn as three stacked circles and they are one of the building blocks of Transactional Analysis. They categorise the ways we think, feel and behave and are called Parent, Adult, and Child. Each ego state is given a capital letter to denote the difference between actual parents, adults and children. The use of three sets or systems of behavioural characteristics, determines the effectiveness of interpersonal transactions between people who work together: In interpersonal ‘Transactions’, an understanding of TA helps one recognise the ‘other’ party’s style in P-A-C terms and to select a response which is likely to be constructive, avoiding tension or conflict. Different kinds of transactions used between the above ego states would include: Crossed transactions – A transaction in which the ego state addressed does not correspond to the one which responds e.g. I criticise you from my Critical Parent ego state. For there not to be conflict you need to respond from your Adapted Child Ego-state. If you respond from your Rebellious Child or Your Own Critical Parent, there will be conflict. Complementary transactions – A transaction in which the transactional vectors are parallel and the ego-state addressed is the one which responds. In the example above the transaction would be complementary if you responded to my Critical Parent from Adapted Child. Ulterior transactions – A transaction which is also carrying a covert message, e.g. ‘When is my dinner going to be ready’ (open message) ‘so we can fight if it is not ready yet’ (covert message and an invitation into a psychological game called ‘Uproar’). All the Life Positions involve ulterior transactions – unspoken messages. Effective business dialogue occurs more readily in the Adult ego state. Successful managers are those people who are better able to identify ego states then match and lead their business colleagues toward their Adult ego state before discussing important business issues. There is no general rule as to the effectiveness of any ego state in any given situation (some people get results by being dictatorial (Parent to Child), or by having temper tantrums, (Child to Parent), but for a balanced approach to life, Adult to Adult is generally recommended.

References

http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/spd110td/interper/relations/relations.html
www.blackwellpublishing.com/intropsych/pdf/chapter18.pdf